The destruction of Jerusalem in 587 B.C. took place during a time of religious and intellectual development around the world. The 5th and 6th century B.C. saw the rise of Buddhism, Jainism, Confucianism, Zoroastrianism, and Greek philosophy. It is probably more than mere coincidence that this religious and intellectual spurt occurred around the time of the Babylonian captivity. However, to substantiate and elaborate on this point is well beyond my expertise. Rather I would like to quickly point out the historical setting in which these developments took place. Looking at the thought of those who started these religious and intellectual movements may give us insight when trying to speculate about a possible connection between the various movements. Of course it may be the case that there is no significant connection, but it is my opinion that there is something to the rise of religious and intellectual reforms around the world during this time.

CHINA

Reformer: Confucius

In China, the first known dynasty is known as the Shang dynasty. (c. 1751-1112 B.C.) Some hold that a Hsia dynasty predated the Shang dynasty, but there is little archeological evidence to support this.

During the Shang dynasty, animism and the worship of royal ancestors were predominant. It was believed that once something or someone died, their material body would decay and what remained would merge with the creative source of all things.

However, when certain Noble family members died, they would become divine beings who were to be worshipped. Thus the early Chinese had a pantheon of gods. Some of these gods were deceased people and some were not. There existed a belief in a primary god who represented the ultimate god. The name of this god was Shang Ti.

The following dynasty was that of the Chou dynasty. (c. 1111 to 221 B.C.) The Chou family was more philosophical than their predecessors. They did not reject religion and the gods, but they laid more emphasis on ethics and rituals than did the Shang.

One of the major religious developments during the Chou dynasty may be found in their belief in the primacy of Shang Ti. It was believed that the state of the dynasty was somehow related to the favor or disfavor of Shang Ti.

Politically speaking, the Chou dynasty was marked by feudalism. While the early rulers emphasized a virtuous leader, the later rulers tended toward the accumulation of wealth and power. This, along with other factors, lead to a decline in the feudalistic states.

It was in this context that Confucius lived. With the feudal system breaking down, rulers started looking for skilled and knowledgeable men to assist them. Confucius was a knowledgeable man who traveled China seeking an opportunity to employ his social and political views.

INDIA

Reformers: Buddha and Mahavira

The earliest known civilization in India is known as the Harappan. This culture thrived from roughly 2500 to 1500 B.C. There culture appeared to center around a city called Mohenjo-Daro, which was about 200 miles north of Karachi along the Indus River. Archeological evidence suggests that this culture rivaled their contemporaries in Egypt and Mesopotamia.

Around 1500 B.C. an Indo-European group, who we call the Aryans, migrated into the Indus Valley area. Some historians claim that the Aryans were barbarians who invaded the Indus Valley burning and pillaging as they moved. Others think that the Aryans migrated into the Indus Valley over time. I am not qualified to say who is correct, but whether the Aryans invaded or migrated is not terribly relevant to my purposes here. Needless to say, the Aryans moved into the Indus Valley.

Over time, a caste system developed. This caste system included the the Kshatriyas (nobles), the Brahmins (priests), the Vaisyas (peasants or artisans), and the Shudras (enslaved non-Aryans). The Vaisyas and Shudras did not have much chance of gaining ascendancy over the other two castes, but the Kshatriyas and the Brahmins struggled over power and influence.

Because of the superstition of the Indo-Aryan people, the importance of performing the proper religious ceremonies became more and more important. Some of these rituals were so elaborate that they took weeks or even months to perform. Apparently the other classes found this a necessity because they believed it brought about various blessing, not the least of which was victory in battle.

The Brahmins gathered a large body of lectures on the proper manner of sacrificial guidelines, sacred rights, and prayer formulas. A written collection of these lectures now exist as the "Brahmanas". The Brahmins developed an elaborate set of doctrines and practices. Of the doctrines developed was the doctrine of Karma. It was this doctrine that helped to cement the caste system. If a person was born into the Shudra caste, he or she deserved to be treated as a Shudra, since the Law of Karma determined the kind of existence he or she is to have in this life.

PERSIA

Reformers: Zoroaster

Much of what we know about ancient Persia comes from the Greek writer Herodotus. We also gather information about the early Iranian religion from the Avesta (the Zoroastrian scriptures). Like India, the religious people of Iran had a caste system. The hierarchy did not appear to be as strict, but it was a caste system none the less. The Magi or priestly class was on the top. They interpreted dreams, performed "wonders", and administered sacrificial rites. Under the priests were the warriors and commoners.

For the ancient Iranians, gods were mainly personifications of the powers of nature. Therefore, the Persians before Zoroaster were polytheists. They worshiped Ahura Mazda, Mithras, Intar, Indara and Anahita. It appears that the god Mithra was of prime importance the ancient Indo-Iranians. For them he was the god of war and light.

The worship of their gods usually included the sacrifice of animals, fire-worship, and the use of intoxicating drink. This drink or haoma juice was sprinkled over various instruments of religious significance. The animal sacrifices were set out for the gods, as if the worshipers were having a meal with the gods. During the time of worship, the magi would deliver chants and recount the birth of the gods.

There were some practical problems that made this kind of worship burdensome on the people who practiced it. The main problem was that it was difficult to support religious practices with animal sacrifices in such a desolate land. Livestock was more precious in Iran than it was in India. This may have helped, in the long run, the cause of Zoroaster.

Siddhartha Guatama did not appear to be on a mission to respond to some prevailing ideology. His teachings were more an outgrowth of his own personal spiritual journey. His journey appears to have started with the realization of human suffering. After leaving his parents he sought enlightenment by way of self-deprivation. He came to a point where his way of life nearly killed him. Even at this extreme, he did not find enlightenment. One day he realized that enlightenment alluded him because of his extreme desire. From then on, he preached his way of enlightenment by way of the cessation of attachment or desire.

While Buddha did not seek to reject the doctrines of the Brahmin, his religious starting point may have been instrumental in his eventual rejection of some of their teachings. The Brahmin were not terribly concerned about the lower castes. Buddha, on the other hand, seemed interested in the plight of those who suffered. The Brahmin were focused on elaborate rituals to placate the gods. Buddha was not trying to placate the gods, he was trying to transcend the plight of men and gods. He brought to all castes the hope of salvation from suffering.

The Buddhist life was not easy, but his teachings were more straight forward than that of the Hindu Brahmin. People from all walks of life could begin to learn the teachings of Siddhartha Guatama. This was in contrast to the Hindu religion. While Hinduism may have started with each man being the priest of his own house, by the time of Guatama Buddha, Hinduism had become a religion of professional priests. Siddhartha Guatama had brought religion back to the common man.

Unlike Guatama Buddha and Mahavira, Confucius was motivated to change his ideological and political landscape. During his early years, he worked as a tax collector for the Duke of Lu. However, after the death of his mother, he took time to morn and then devoted himself as a teacher. At the age of fifty-five, Confucius traveled around China seeking some governmental post, but without success.

The feudal lords, from whom he was seeking a post, ruled through force and lived relatively decadent lives. They tolerated his views, but did not accept his views on governing through moral example. This must have frustrated Confucius. He was interested in reforming the government of China. He wanted to reform the language and bring back a sense of moral unity to a nation of morally corrupt feudal lords. Confucius was also desired to bring back the old traditions of his ancestors, which he felt had been neglected. One of the most important traditions being the sacred burial rituals. Confucius thought that a society that honored their dead relatives would be a good society.

The life and thought of Mahavira may have been a reaction to the rise in Brahmin influence and power. The Brahmin supposed that only their priestly class could achieve Nirvana. Mahavira, being part of the Kshatriya caste, probably took part in philosophical and religious discussions. These philosophical and religious discussions probably included ideas that were not congruent with Hindu monistic idealism. A group of the Kshatriya class believed, in opposition to the prevailing Hindu philosophy, that real things had existence apart from one's experience of them.

Mahavira started with two basic assumptions.

1. Salvation, or ridding oneself of evil, must come through a severe asceticism.
2. Maintaining purity involves not harming any living being.

Mahavira's spiritual quest for salvation was probably motivated by his personal desire for salvation. However, that quest lead him to reject the orthodoxy of the day. He did not pay heed to the elaborate Brahmin rituals, nor did he accept the authority of the Veda's. Perhaps the most unorthodox views of Mahavira were his rejection of the strict caste system and his notion that non-Brahmins could achieve Nirvana. In many ways, Mahavira's rejection of Hindu orthodoxy was like Guatama Buddha's. They seemed to agree with the each other concerning the problems of Hinduism, but they disagreed on the means of fixing the problem.

Zoroaster repudiated many of the religious teachings and practices of his day. He was a "man on a mission" from Ahura Mazda. His intentions were to convert people to the worship of one god. He rejected the priestly class and their rituals and sacrifices. He zealously challenged the orthodoxy of the Indo-Iranian priests.

Where Guatama and Mahavira embarked on a path toward enlightenment, and Confucius sought after political unity, Zoroaster fought for good to overcome evil. His primary reason for engaging the culture was to gain a spiritual army to overcome evil. He did not, however, completely reject all doctrines and rituals of the Indo-Iranians. One example of this is that of fire rituals. It is thought that fire rituals took place before Zoroaster. If that is true, then those rituals continued to be practiced by the followers of Zoroaster.

Buddha was born into the house of a Kshatriya or warrior class family. He married and had a child. He left his family and life of luxury in order to wander about as a mendicant monk. Buddha is said to have found enlightenment and spent the rest of his life preaching his path to Nirvana.

Buddha, like Mahavira, rejected the Hindu caste system and the authority of the Vedas. Buddha taught that the path to enlightenment was through the cessation of desire. He had tried that way of the Brahmin and the way of self-neglect, but realized the futility of these paths.

Enlightenment and the path to Nirvana could not be found in the elaborate rituals and teachings of the Brahmin. Nor could the way be found through extreme self-neglect. In a way, Buddha was the mean between the Brahmin and Mahavira.

Confucius was not from a wealthy family, but his family was well respected. His father died shortly after he was born. His mother provided a tutor to Confucius for his intellectual development.

He took a position as a tax collector, was married and had a son. At the age of fifty five, he traveled China seeking a government post in order to apply his ethical and political doctrines.

Zoroaster was probably from a rural setting. From his youth he was recognized as one having a particularly compassionate nature. At the age of twenty, he left his parents and wife to seek spiritual enlightenment.

After having a vision of Ahura Mazda at the age of thirty, Zoroaster made great efforts to proselytize the Indo-Iranian people. After several years, with little success, he finally converted an Aryan prince named Vishtaspa. Once this happened, Zoroaster's faith took root.

Perhaps one of the most important principles in Confucianism is that of "Li". Li is the principle by which human relations are to be ordered. Five human relations are to be ordered properly if society is to be correctly ordered. These relations are the relations between:

1. Ruler and Subject
2. Father and Son
3. Husband and Wife
4. Oldest Son and his younger Brothers
5. Elders and Juniors

Confucius was primarily interested in all men cooperating for the good of all. His second principle of "jen" recognized the inherent worth of any human being. It was imperative that people of every rank show their proper respect to each other.

Of these relationships, his primary concern was with family relationships. Filial piety was a moral first principle for Confucius. This piety was to be expressed for one's entire life.

Politically, he saw the Father / Son relationship as analogous to the Ruler / Subject relationship. If the rulers are good and show proper respects, the subjects would then follow the lead of the rulers.

Zoroaster's religion was strictly monotheistic. Ahura Mazda, who in the Hindu religion was an asura or evil spirit, was now Zoroaster's sole object of religious devotion.

Zoroaster also believed in an evil spirit called Angra Mainyu. This spirit continually tries to divert religious devotion from Ahura Mazda. The goal of man, since he had been given free will, is to chose either the Truth (Ahura Mazda) or the Lie (Angra Mainyu).

One of the differences between the Indo-Iranian religion and Zoroastrianism is that in the former, priests performed animal sacrifices and elaborate rituals. Zoroaster renounced many of these practices. His disagreements with the priests lead to his imprisonment. It wasn't until the conversion of Vishtaspa that Zoroaster's teachings could be freely disseminated.

Zoroaster saw the spread of Zoroastrianism as vital to the cosmic battle of good and evil. Of course Ahura Mazda will eventually do away with Angra Mainyu, but humans are to play a role in the defeat of evil. Hence it is imperative that people join the fight by becoming Zoroastrian.

Zoroastrianism had a following, but did not gain large adherents until around 226 A.D. under the Sassanid Dynasty.

Today there are roughly 2.6 million adherents. Most of these adherents belong to the ethnic group known as the Parsis.

Even if I had a thorough knowledge of these religions it would be incredibly difficult to determine, with a high degree of certainty, the connections between these religious movements. However, having said that, I will offer some initial thoughts on the subject.

The above mentioned religious leaders came from different backgrounds, had different motivations for their religious devotion, and differed in their religious tenants and practices. However, a common thread between them is that they all responded to their culture in a similar manner. The two main commonalties appear to be that of moral and social reformation.

Mahavira and Guatama Buddha did not hold philosophically defensible moral systems, but practically speaking, they reformed their culture by rejecting a caste system that limited the number of people who could attain enlightenment. In their day religion was something in which only the higher castes were able to participate. The complicated speculations and rituals of the Brahmin were challenged by the simple, straightforward messages of these two leaders. People who were once without hope of participating in a religion that required significant technical knowledge were now able to be religious again.

Zoroaster and Confucius were also moral and social reformers. Both of them saw moral declines in the people and especially the rulers of their respective regions. Confucius came to his moral teachings by means of a rational reflection on natural law. Zoroaster came to his moral convictions by way of a vision of Ahura Mazda and by way of reflection. Both regard man as free creatures who are capable of making good and bad decisions. Both sought to reform their culture by teaching men to make good decisions.

What is common to all four of these reformers is that they all sought to simplify the doctrines of their day into something that could motivate and unify their regions. The simplification process did not mean that they tried to state the Hindu or Chinese doctrines in a concise fashion. Much of the simplification was a rejection of their regionally accepted doctrines. It seems that in all of these regions, morality and religion became either irrelevant or unnecessarily complicated by tradition or both.

It is difficult to find common doctrinal content between all of these reformers. They were asking different questions and answering them in different ways. But in some ways, that is what makes their commonality so amazing. Though they taught different doctrines and emphasized different moral teachings, they achieved similar goals. They brought religion and morality back to common people and ultimately they helped to unify their regions (for a time) in the process.